Environmental Risk - 2484 Words

Environmental Risk Introduction Plastic bags have been around for ages now and have a multitude of different uses. Since the 1960s, people of all ages have been using these multi-purpose bags for a variety of purposes including shopping, carrying personal items and for dumping garbage (Sugii, 2008). Plastic bags are mostly single-use items which consumers can dispose off once used and took the world by storm once introduced, replacing the popular paper bags. Plastic Bags what makes them useful? Plastic bags are made from a thin layer of plastic textile or film, the most popular being Polyethylene, and sealed together by adhesives or heat-sealed. They are available in a variety of design options to offer all kinds of convenience to the consumer. Some have hard or soft handles in order to offer carrying convenience while others boast easy-to-open and seal options to keep its contents airtight. Examples of such bags include the popular Ziploc bags which are often used to refrigerate edible contents while keeping them airtight. Moreover, plastic bags are leak-free and can be used to transport frozen and wet items without worrying about leakage during transportation. The bags can also be developed in different colors and with messages, which do not wear off very quickly, thus making them popular with businesses, which like to offer their own branded shopping bags to customers. The design friendly aspect of plastic bags means there is always room to innovate and customizeShow Mor eRelatedEnvironmental Scanning And Key Risk Indicators809 Words   |  4 Pagesorganization risk, such as Risk Analysis Questionnaire, Financial Statement Method, Flowchart Method, On-Site Inspections, Environmental Scanning, and Key Risk Indicators (Fraser Simkins, 2010). Ultimately, I chose to use Environmental Scanning and Key Risk Indicators to assess The Kroger Company’s risk. Comparatively, each tool offers unique advantages and viewpoints of the organization’s operations, current risk, and perceived future risk. So, why did I choose Environmental Scanning andRead More Media Portrayal of Environmental Risk Essay2931 Words   |  12 Pages Media Portrayal of Environmental Risk: Dissemination or Delusion? Transmission of ideas and information through media avenues like television and the press are the predominant means by which much of contemporary culture and the developed world obtain vital information. The media has an enormous impact on the public’s conceptualization of ideals: societal perceptions are shaped by the information made available to us through the different venues of media. Examining how the transmittal of informationRead Moreadvantages and disadvantages of environmental risk management1374 Words   |  6 Pagesdisadvantages of environmental risk management?   Advantages: 1. Better strategy of company. Through the environmental risk management, we are going to have a better understanding on the environment, which may make have a better decision making on company strategy. Usually, if we know a place which may suffer from earthquake or tsunami frequently, we may not build or open some department on that place in order to reduce risk. If we have better understand or information for environmental risk, we canRead MoreAnalysis Of Norman s Article About Environmental Risk894 Words   |  4 PagesIn Norman Wei article about Environmental Risk, he uses the word, â€Å"risk† several times throughout the article too really bring in the interest of the reader. By using the word risk he is applying an emotional aspect to life. By doing this he makes the reader visually imaging the possibility of their overall physical harm. 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(2015)Read MoreEnvironmental Risk Assessment931 Words   |  4 Pages Risk Assessment Worksheet Name ENV/420 Date Instructor Risk Assessment Worksheet Ecological Risk Assessment Framework The framework of ecological risk assessment consists of a problem statement (formulation), risk analysis, risk characterization, and risk management. A precursor to the problem statement involves a historical account and fundamentals of living organisms, ecological systems, and any substances, whether biological or synthetic, that may be introduced to environmental componentsRead MoreEnvironmental Risk Perception Paper1324 Words   |  6 Pages Environmental Risk Perception Paper Justin Yates Environmental Psychology June 17, 2014 Gerry Lloyd Environmental Risk Perception Paper As the earth continues to age, there are many harmful and lasting direct consequences that the earth and the human nature have endured. 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Guidelines for Writing the Three Major Parts Free Essays

Guidelines for Writing the three major parts of the Literature Review (Introduction, Literature, and Discussion) follow. Directions Do not begin typing until you see the level heading – An Overview and Purpose in your template. The Guidelines are organized by LECTURES and INSTRUCTIONS. We will write a custom essay sample on Guidelines for Writing the Three Major Parts or any similar topic only for you Order Now Lectures and related reading material are included to assist in developing each part of the Review. Where there is to be writing, there are specific Instructions as what is to be included under each heading. Instructions appear in a box. Each instruction is numbered. Respond to ALL NUMBERED INSTRUCTIONS. Introduction to the Literature Insert Your Brief Topic before the Colon: An Overview and Purpose Lecture Note: This section is revised with each new submission of a draft. The introductory section should describe the topic (problem area, guiding concept, theme or research question or problem) that is being reviewed. Aim for an â€Å"eye catching opening sentence†. Sometimes this is a dramatic expression of a number to catch the reader’s attention such as the prevalence of a disease, crime rate, school drop out rate, or sales volume. Be sure the topic is focused on the literature that will be reported. Briefly define the key concepts. Introduce these immediately. The topic should be sufficiently focused to permit an in-depth, substantial investigation, relevant to an area of advanced study/global leadership that guides a range of inquiry, results in an extensive search of scholarly literature, and generation of questions for further inquiry. The purpose of a literature review is presented in the introduction. Bourner (1996) reports the following Purposes – of a literature review – (reasons for a review of the literature) before embarking on a research project. These reasons include: †¢ to identify gaps in the literature †¢ to avoid reinventing the wheel (at the very least this will save time and it can stop you from making the same mistakes as others) †¢ to carry on from where others have already reached (reviewing the field allows you to build on the platform of existing knowledge and ideas) †¢ to identify other people working in the same fields (a researcher network is a valuable resource) †¢ to increase your breadth of knowledge of your subject area †¢ to identify seminal works in your area to provide the intellectual context for your own work, enabling you to position your project relative to other work †¢ to identify opposing views †¢ to put your work into perspective †¢ to demonstrate that you can access previous work in an area †¢ to identify information and ideas that may be relevant to your project †¢ to identify methods that could be relevant to your project Bourner, T. (1996 ). The research process: Four steps to success in T. Greenfield (Ed. ), Research methods: Guidance for postgraduates (pp. 7-11). London: Arnold. Retrieved 8-13-02 from Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology RMIT University http://www. ib. rmit. edu. au/tutorials/literature/litrev. html As you attempt to define concepts (variables) and their relationships to other variables, if applicable, identify causal (independent) variables and effects (dependent variables). You may also identify other variables that can be contextual, intervening, or mediating (see Creswell, pp. 94-95 or other texts). After you introduce the topic area properly (instructions follow), you will develop a succinct one-sentence purpose of the review. Three examples of a concluding purpose statement in the overview are: Example 1: The purpose of this review is to critically analyze the theoretical and empirical literature on web-based instruction as an instructional method in distance education, with an emphasis on effectiveness studies that focus on instructional effectiveness, student learning outcomes, retention, student perceptions of this method of course delivery, and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variable (independent) is â€Å"instructional method of web-based instruction† and the effects (dependent variable) are instructional effectiveness, student learning outcomes, retention, and student perceptions. Example 2: The purpose of this critical analysis of theoretical and empirical literature is to (a) examine historical and current literature to evaluate whether gender workplace bias exists; (b) explore the impact such a bias would have on women in the workplace, specifically women moving up the corporate ladder; and, (c) identify any theoretical or empirical gaps in the literature for the purpose of suggesting future areas of scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variable (independent) is â€Å"gender bias against women in the workplace† and the effect (dependent variable) is mobility up the corporate ladder. Example 3 (Review carefully): The purpose of this critical analysis of theoretical and empirical literature is explore the influence of organizational leadership and other factors on organizational performance, in for-profit and not-for profit service organizations, and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variables (independent) are â€Å"organizational leadership† and â€Å"other factors†, contextual (intervening or mediating) variables are the type of organization (product versus service) and profit/non-profit, and the effect (dependent variable) is organizational performance. Please note in developing your purpose statement, that the purpose statement begins with The purpose of †¦. and concludes with a statement related to identifying future areas of scholarly inquiry. 9 Instructions: Writing An Overview and Purpose (Follow precisely) *Review Blackboard Forum 5. Use your information and faculty comments for strengthening, as a guide to develop your Overview and Purpose (see items #1-9 below). *Draft 1 is due Week 3. Review Forum 6. You will get a great start if you develop this well. 1. Using the template: a. Develop a preliminary title for the Review and include on the title page. The title should include the main concepts and themes (and/or key theories) for this review. Remember this is a critical analysis of the literature NOT a research study!!!! In no area of this paper, should you refer to this Review of Literature as a research study!!!!!! b. For the Introduction to the Literature, insert a brief subtitle preceding the colon for the level heading: ___: Overview and Purpose. 2. Under the Overview and Purpose, introduce the paper with an â€Å"eye catching† opening sentence for the first paragraph. 3. After the â€Å"eye catching† opening sentence, briefly – describe the topic (problem area, guiding concept, theme). Get to the point – don’t let the reader guess what the review is about –a few sentences. 4. Next include brief definitions of each of the major concepts and cite references for these definitions in appropriate APA format. BE BRIEF – this is not the literature but an introduction to it! Anything you present in the introduction is developed in depth in the Review of the Literature. 5. Next, very briefly, attempt to identify how the literature explains these variables and their relationships to other variables. Include as many as possible variables because this will help in constructing a literature map. The map will show relationships between the variables as you describe here. – Begin with the following: The causal variables (independent are) †¦ The effects (dependent/outcome variables are†¦ Contextual (intervening or mediating) variables that further impact the dependent or outcome variables are †¦. 6. Discuss how the topic area was identified and your reasons (point of view) for selecting the topic area to conduct your critical analysis of the literature. Review the Guidelines: How to Start – Select a Topic and Overview and Purpose, including purposes identified by Bourner (1996). Begin with the following: The topic area of ____ was selected because___. 7. Explain what you want to know about the topic. Review Hart, 1999, p. 14 (Questions the Review Can Answer). Begin with the following: Some questions to be answered through this critical analysis of the literature are:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8. Answer the following: Is the topic about the problems in a discipline or field of study, the processes in a discipline or field of study, or the practices in a discipline or field of study? Processes can refer to various epistemologic processes to develop knowledge (also See Hart, 1999, p. 4). Introduce this clearly so the reader knows what you are speaking about. Begin with the following: The problem area of †¦ is about†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9. Conclude the Overview and Purpose with a clearly formulated statement of purpose of the literature review. Use the examples in the guidelines, as a guide to develop this. Make this clear (see examples in the previous lecture note). Begin wi th the following and include the ending The purpose of this †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. , and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. Organization of the Review, Scope, and Library Research Plan Organization of the Review Lecture Collect appropriate articles, read critically, identify concepts, theories, and themes, and think about the best way to present your topic. Write these concepts, theories, and themes down (see your Blackboard forum 5 submission and instructor response. Develop a Literature Map. This is a Content Map (Concept Map or Mind Map): All students will have a literature map that will guide the organization of the review and literature search. Build (draw) a visual picture of the concepts and their relationships, which results in a literature map. These evolve from your topic, key concepts, ideas, theme, and/or purpose. Don’t introduce new information or concepts. It should first be introduced in the overview. The literature map is presented in-depth here. There are many methods to organize the review, which often change as you learn more about the topic. Concept Mapping – Representing information in diagram form where key words are linked by lines. These lines are then labeled to express the relationship between the terms. The resulting ‘map’ shows links between key ideas and can then be read through to clarify relationships between key terms. . Definition and Purpose of a Literature Map. This map is a visual/graphic representation of concepts, ideas, and themes that serve to guide thinking. In this case, the purpose is to guide the search and organizational presentation of your review. This map serves to: i. Develop ideas for your review ii. Show relationships and interrelationships between the con cepts, theories, and themes – and if so, what type of relationships iii. Assist in organizing old knowledge and integrating it with new knowledge iv. Guide your literature search plan/strategy v. Identify subtitles (subheadings) to organize your literature review so that you can communicate your ideas systematically. vi. A literature/content map is a creative, intuitive, and artistic endeavor to see how things fit – to generate alternatives. It is also analytical and critical, based on what you are finding in the literature. REVIEW THESE LINKS A simplified explanation of understanding of a Content map is described in the following URL – web link – http://users. edte. utwente. nl/lanzing/cm_home. htm b. Various types of Graphic or Visual Organizers (review this online. Click each box) (you need to have the syllabus downloaded and Internet connection on) |Chain of Events |Clustering |Compare/Contrast | |Continuum |Cycle |Family Tree | |Fishbone |Interaction Outline |Problem/Solution | |Spider |Storyboard |Venn Diagram | Source: http://www. sdcoe. k12. ca. us/score/actbank/sorganiz. htm Other Web sites: Graphic or Visual Organizers Graphic or Visual Organizers: A good site review this online by clicking link. ttp://edservices. aea7. k12. ia. us/edtech/classroom/workshops/organizers. html http://www. cast. org/ncac/index. cfm? i=3015 http://www. veale. com. au/phd/files/Lit_Map. pdf Some diagrams of content maps are depicted in the following URL web link http://trochim. human. cornell. edu/research/epp2/epp2. htm#Table1 Free Mind Mapping Software (Smart Draw) http://www. smartdraw. com/specials/mindmapping. asp? id=13054 Readings on Mapping Ideas: See Hart, 1999, pp. 142-162 Blackboard’s Assignments Toolbar: See example of literature maps in As signments – Weeks 1-8 Literature Review (Critical Analysis) 50%. Within this folder is information on PowerPoint Presentation and Student Examples. Most of the student examples include literature maps for RES 702 (RES600) students. Organizing the review of the literature by themes, theories, or major concepts and related concepts provides a â€Å"frame for the central topic† to organize. In this case, you may proceed inductively or deductively. http://trochim. human. cornell. edu/kb/dedind. htm Exercise in Deductive/Inductive thinking: http://www2. sjsu. edu/depts/itl/graphics/induc/ind-ded. html#3b For example, a deductive approach might start with the broader view or concept(s) then move to the specific topic area. Example FOLLOWS: A literature map (Figure 1) is used to guide the library search for theoretical and empirical literature about distance learning. The map shows a deductive pattern of the major themes, using an â€Å"interaction line style† type of graphic organizer. Beginning with the broadest concept of distance education, web-based instruction interacts with student characteristics, which leads to evaluation of effectiveness of web-based instruction in distance education. . . Other concepts and their relationships to guide the review are . . †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Other Organizational Methodologies for Reviews: While RES 702 students are asked to develop literature maps that serve to organize the review, with more scholarly experience and depending upon the topic, you could also present the Review using an â€Å"opposing view† or â€Å"methodological appr oach†. This is not expected now. c. The literature map generates an outline for the Review of the Literature Review â€Å"Why do an Outline, and Basic Outlining skills: http://www. und. du/instruct/wstevens/PROPOSALCLASS/PATRAS. html http://www. mnstate. edu/wasson/ed603/ed603lesson5. htm An outline provides a blueprint, skeleton, or a roadmap for the final written review. An outline is an organizational process that is a logical description of the important components of the literature review. It provides a visual and conceptual design for writing. 1. Identify the main points in the order they should be presented. 2. Differentiate each main heading into logical subheadings. 3. Use further subdivisions if necessary. IT IS STRONGLY SUGGESTED THAT YOU INCLUDE A SECTION ON MEASUREMENT OF YOUR MAJOR VARIABLES. REPORT SOME OF THE MAJOR METHODS, TOOLS, OR INSTRUMENTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED IN PRIOR STUDIES TO MEASURE THE KEY CONCEPTS IN YOUR OUTLINE. Notice in the outline that follows, a sub-level heading is measurement of leadership and organizational performance. In the Review of the Literature section, you would then describe the tools whether qualitative or quantitative, and reliability, validity (quantitative tools), and trustworthiness of qualitative tools. Run a Proquest or Google search such as: â€Å"measurement leadership†. This saves you time in the QP and literature in the †dissertation† where you need to know how your variables have been studied and measured. It is best to have MORE detail in these themes. You can always change later. Example of an Outline: (Let us say that the following concepts are present in the literature map which could be Chain of Events, Clustering, or Interaction Outline. This is an example of an outline (quite detailed). It includes the major concepts that can be used for the literature search, and the outline is placed in the 2nd part of this Review (Review of the Literature) to organize how to present the literature. Leadership Classical, Progressive, Risk Leadership Theories Traits and Characteristics of Leaders; Leadership, Power and Influence; Gender and Equity Issues in Leadership Practice Cultural Issues and Leadership Developing Teams Leading Organizational Change Organizational Leadership Development; Strategic Leadership Leadership Measurement Organizational Performance Dimensions of Organizational Performance Organizational Climate Individual Performance Team Performance Supplier/Vendor Perspectives Customer Satisfaction Financial Performance Effectiveness Indicators Performance Driven Organizations Competency Modeling Managing Performance 360 Degree Feedback Collaborative Change Organizational Performance Measurement: Output (Activities) and Outcome (Results) Measures Factors Influencing Organizational Performance Leadership and Performance of Organizations Leadership Style and Team Performance Leadership Style and Organizational Outcomes Leadership Style and Vendor/Supplier and Customer Satisfaction Transformational Leadership, Organizational Culture, and Organizational Effectiveness 7 Instructions for Writing the Organization of the Review Do not present literature that you reviewed here. Just respond to questions 1-7. . After you design the literature map, begin with the statement: A literature map (Figure 1) is used to guide the library search for theoretical and empirical literature in this review about ___. 1. Next, describe the specific type of organizer that you used to design your map (for example, cluster, chain of events, cycle, etc). To do this, you need to review this syllabus on line , and click the different URL links of examples of visual or graphic organizers (review preceding lecture which provides several types). 2. Identify the specific the concepts, theories, and themes that are in your literature map. 3. Next, briefly, describe the relationships between these concepts, theories and themes (such as what leads to what? Which are the causal, outcome and/or intervening variables? Are the concepts organized inductively or deductively? This all refers to the concepts, theories, and themes in your literature map. 4. Next explain that in addition to guiding the literature search, the literature map serves to identify themes, theories, and concepts that will organize the Literature Review. Present these theories, concepts, and themes in outline form, differentiating each main heading into logical subheadings. (Keep it simple). . Due for draft 1, go to the next major section (Review of the Literature) – insert these themes/concepts as level headings/sublevel headings in outline form. They serve to organize the Review of the Literature. Use appropriate APA (see p. 113 of APA) level headings. An example using APA level headings, is shown in the next major section of these guidelines. The concepts and themes for the example, uses the outline of themes previously discussed (leadership and organizational performance). 6. Insert the Figure 1, Literature Map at the end of this discussion of the Organization of the Review (before Scope and Context). . Make sure that you develop your literature map in a software application that can be copied and pasted into your Microsoft word document containing your paper. b. Make sure the map is an appropriate size and fits within the required paper margins. c. The Figure and #, and Title (Literature Map) belong at the bottom, centered: Figure 1 Literature Map Your goal is to have the map well-developed in draft 1 and finalized in (draft 2). It is expected that this map will change as you â€Å"tighten† and â€Å"organize your literature review in the next section† as well as well as in your qualifying paper. Refine this part with each new draft (and particularly as your literature map evolves). Scope and Context Lecture This section lets the reader know what is and is not included in your literature review (scope). The topic is described in such a way that an appropriate context for the review of the literature is established, in a meaningful, logical way. The key terms here are included/excluded. You can restate the theories, concepts and constructs that you will include and obvious theories, concepts and constructs you won’t include (Look at your problem and topic area). Identify what might be included in the search in terms of types of organizations (public/private; for-profit, not for profit; service/product; types of businesses, types of educational institutions); populations such as young versus old; gender; cultural groups; countries; or type of occupation. The major types of scholarly literature to review are: empirical studies, review articles (critical analysis), theoretical articles/books, methodological articles, and case studies. These types of literature may be in the form of a book, hard copy journal articles, and electronic journal articles. The following are different types and forms of literature: Periodical Abstract in a primary source, Abstract in a secondary source, Periodical (hard copy), Periodical (electronic), Non-periodical (Book), Non-periodical (chapter in a book), Proceeding of meetings or symposia, Doctoral Dissertations (including abstracts), Unpublished work, Audio-Visuals, Newspaper, Government documents, and Electronic Media. Instructions for Writing the Scope and Context 1. As you write this, discuss what is and is not included. Regarding the topic or problem area, discuss what is and is not included in terms of concepts/theories, applications to different populations and settings. 1. Identify the forms (not types) of publications that are included. You don’t need to name specific articles, but identify the forms of literature to be included. 2. Identify the discipline(s) you are focusing in (e. g. , education, health, business, criminal justice, accounting, sociology)? Included specialized areas within these disciplines, such as: gender theories in sociology, accounting ethics, special education for specified populations, urban violence, etc. 3. Identify the scope in terms of the years (period of time) that your literature review covers and exclusions. 5. Discuss whether you are limiting your review to U. S. literature, and/or Global literature. For global literature, identify the â€Å"countries†. If seminal books are emphasized, include the titles. Refine this part with each new draft (and particularly as your literature expands). Library Research Plan and Strategy Lecture THIS IS THE PLAN, NOT THE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE!! The review is presented in the second major section (Review of the Literature) Searching the Literature: A good review of the literature is dependent upon knowledge of the use of indexes and abstracts, the ability to conduct exhaustive bibliographic searches, and ability to organize the collected data meaningfully. Information literacy skills assist with information seeking and retrieval methods and scholarly communication. Recognize scholarly and peer reviewed journals (See Week 1 Lecture) The e-Learning tutorials about Lynn Library can assist research students with the development of literature reviews using electronic databases, abstracts, bibliographic software, Internet searching, Library catalogue searching, subject resources, off-campus searching, and research and writing skills. You need to complete the tutorials. Library Research Plan/Strategy: In reporting your library plan/strategy, identify concepts, themes (key words) or descriptors and search the relevant databases for research on your topic. Be consistent with the Literature map concepts and themes. Focus your search on primary scholarly works including: empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological inquiry. Recognize the differences between these types of scholarly inquiry. Review dissertation abstracts. Did you do a Lynn Library catalog search on the topic (at Lynn)? Did you search selected journals? Did you limit the search to peer-review journals? Did you limit the search to certain years? If you are having difficulty in your library search, you may make an appointment with the Reference Librarian who may assist in building effective search strategies. When visiting the Library, you should come prepared with your search words. Requesting Materials: It is suggested that you read the abstracts before requesting the materials from the Librarian, because certain abstracts may provide enough information to help you make a decision on the material’s relevance. Expect that you will obtain more literature than you will need to include in your literature review. Quantity, however, is not as important as selecting appropriate literature, that is of value and relevant. While many published review articles may have more than 100 cited references, due to time constraints in the course, the expectation is a minimum of 20 â€Å"relevant†, scholarly citations in the text of your paper. Do not go overboard. Quality and relevance is what counts. Don’t use references from â€Å"consulting firms† or firms that are â€Å"promoting† their products or services. Look for scholarly publications. Types and Forms of Literature: Minimum Requirements i. The preference is that you review a variety of types and forms of literature so that you many learn to: ii. Search for and evaluate different types and forms information iii. Integrate a variety of types information in the text of your paper iv. Recognize classic (seminal) works as well as current literature Give yourself time to read the material; do not make a library request for everything at once. Readings: Search Strategy worksheet: http://library. humboldt. edu/infoservices/sstrawrksht. htm http://www. noodletools. com/debbie/literacies/information/5locate/adviceengine. html http://www. lynn. du/clientuploads/Library/Graduatestudentsmanual. doc 11 Instructions for Writing the Library Research Plan and Strategy In a Review, a discussion of the plan or strategy you used to develop your literature search is presented. Don’t discuss what you â€Å"will† do, but rather â€Å"what you did†. 1. Identify the descriptors (concepts, themes, theories, phrases/key words) used to search the relevant databases for research on your topic. Include â€Å"themes† or groups of words used in the search plan. Add the terms â€Å"theory† or â€Å"research† to your themes when you are searching. You should uses many â€Å"themes† to limit the search. Example of a theme for a library search: â€Å"leadership organizational performance research†. Try to include several themes. 2. Report databases used in your library search. 3. Indicate which of the following types of primary scholarly works were reviewed: empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological inquiry (aim to obtain all of these)? 4. Were secondary citations of references used in your paper? Explain Why? Review APA p. 247 to understand a secondary citation of a source. Remember that these need to be limited. In your dissertation, you need to mostly use primary sources of literature. Remember that if you report literature from secondary sources in your paper use (as cited in __). 5. Explain if you reviewed dissertation abstracts (yes/no). If so, on what topics, which abstracts? You should use these. 6. Explain if you did a Library catalog search on the topic (at Lynn or where? ) Yes/ or no 7. Provide the titles of the key journals reviewed. (Put these titles in Italics). 8. Indicated whether or not you limited the search to peer-reviewed journals? . Indicate if you limited the search to certain years? If so, which years? 10. Refer the reader to the example of a library Search Print-out that you will place in Appendix A. 11. Report any problems encountered in your library search and how these problems were managed. Refine this part with each new draft. Interest, Significance, and Rationale for the Critical Analysis Lecture In this last part of the introduction to the literature review, you explain the importance and significance of the Review that will follow. As you read more, you will find more rationale as to why this review is important. Provide a transition sentence from this Introduction to the Review of the Literature. Then end with a statement that explains how the Review will conclude in the Discussion section. Example of concluding statement: As an emerging method of instructional delivery in higher education, and one that continually evolves with the growth in technology, it is important to understand its impact on learning, retention, instruction, and students. This critical analysis of the literature concludes with a summary and interpretation of theoretical, empirical, and methodological literature, conclusions, and recommendations for future scholarly inquiry into web-based instruction in distance education. 4 Instructions for Writing the Interest, Significance, and Rationale for the Critical Analysis 1. Discuss if the topic is of limited interest, regional, national, or perhaps of global interest? Explain why? You can include personal interest based on experience and potential applications. 2. Describe why it is worth studying (or examining)? 3. Indicate that the presentation of the Review of the Literature follows 4. Develop a concluding statement (see example above, in lecture) to the effect that a synopsis and interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations are presented at the end of the review in the discussion section. Refine this part with each new draft. Review of the Literature About ___ (add your topic) Lecture This is the second major part of this critical analysis. This has a long lecture. Now is the time to write â€Å"your in-depth Literature Review†. You laid the foundations for this section in the Introduction to the Review, to organize your review according to those themes. Present the theoretical literature (theories, model, constructs, concepts) about those themes, and empirical literature (studies) regarding those themes, in a proper manner. Follow the instructions (see presenting theoretical literature, and presenting empirical literature) in this Review of the Literature section. If you present the literature appropriately in this body of the review, then you will have information to present in the Discussion of the Literature. If you don’t, this Review falls apart. Only literature presented in this Review of the Literature can be analyzed in the next section, Discussion of the Literature. You will save a stitch in time, if you follow instructions and learn how to present theories, and how to present studies, including the authors stated limitations and recommendations for future inquiry, in addition to your critique of those studies. †¢ General comments: The theoretical and empirical literature is summarized, analyzed, evaluated, and synthesized in a more in-depth â€Å"coherent† manner within organized headings and sublevel headings. Specifically, information ertaining to theoretical, empirical, methodological, critical review, and case studies about the topic is reported. As reported previously, expect that you will obtain more literature than you will need to include in your literature review. Quantity, however, is not as important as selecting appropriate literature to present, that is of value and relevant. While many published Review articles may have more than 100 cited references, due to time constraints in the course, the expectation is a minimum of 20 â€Å"relevant†, scholarly citations in the text of your paper. This will increase to 50 references in the qualifying paper. It certainly isn’t unusual to have over 100 references in a dissertation. Do not go overboard. Quality and relevance is what counts. Don’t use references from â€Å"consulting firms† or firms that are â€Å"promoting† their products or services. Look for scholarly publications. As you present literature in your â€Å"word† document, it is okay to talk to yourself. Make notes in the document to your self. You can use different font colors or highlights for these messages to yourself. o Perhaps you want to leave a message to yourself to review a particular article that you didn’t yet have the chance to review, or o you want to search another theme. Or you read an article, but didn’t have a chance yet to write about it – jot down notes o Use the word file as a tool where you keep all information in one place. You will find this technique very helpful in developing the qualifying paper, and in developing the your dissertation. The i nstructor does not mind (and in fact encourages you do to this, even in final copies0. Just make the messages â€Å"neat† – and not to distracting) Of utmost importance, is that you present your review appropriately. Practice doing it correctly immediately or you will be WASTING time (having to redo it later). Your review must be organized within the headings/sublevel headings. Insert the outline developed in the Introduction to the Review. Make sure that the outline is consistent with the organization of themes, concepts add theories in your literature map. †¢ It is ok if you reorganize or rename the themes, but make the changes if the Organization of the R (and literature map, in the prior section). You want the Introduction to the Review, Review of the Literature, and the Discussion section all to be â€Å"internally consistent† with one another. †¢ Instructions follow on how to present CRITICALLY present, theoretical and empirical literature. FOLLOW THESE INSTRUCTIONS. Quotations and Paraphrasing and Critical Analysis †¢ This is a literature review, and not your opinion. Almost all of what you say is referenced, except when you are introducing themes and concepts, and critiquing the theoretical or empirical literature (using appropriate criteria – which is explained later †¢ Reminder: Make sure that you adhere to ethical responsibilities of providing accurate information and communicate effectively. Include â€Å"quote marks† for information that is word for word from another literature source follow APA for (Author, year, p. x). For information that is paraphrased, reference the source as (Author, year). †¢ Whether you are referencing a quote or paraphrased information, NOTE THE LOCATION OF THE â€Å"PERIOD†. IT IS NOT BEFORE THE PARENTHESES BUT AFTER. †¢ Do not copy any material that is word for word or paraphrase without citing sources. †¢ Limit your quotations. We do not w ant a â€Å"summary† or â€Å"copy† of the literature. †¢ You cannot present a â€Å"string of quotes†. (Quote after quote after quote). IMPORTANT: If you paraphrase as you write (it must truly be paraphrasing), cite the (author(s), year. A good way to make sure that you paraphrase is to: †¢ Read material Move the material away from your eyesight †¢ Write out what you recall. †¢ Note: Paraphrasing is not changing the order of words. †¢ Review the Required Information Literacy Tutorial which discusses plagiarism. Review the following URLs about Plagiarism, Student Writing, Citing Sources, and Paraphrasing (IMPORTANT to Review) Plagiarism and Student Writing Paraphrasing, citing sources, use of quotations, plagiarism: http://www. ipl. org/div/aplus/linkciting. htm http://depts. washington. edu/psywc/handouts/pdf/plag1. pdf http://www. hamilton. du/academics/resource/wc/usingsources. html †¢ REFERENCE list and BIBLIOGRAPHY list o Add t he complete bibliographic citation of the article you reviewed to your REFERENCE list in appropriate APA format. Don’t wait until the end when the report is due. This is often one of the worst problems, â€Å"trying to find references†. o REFERENCE list – This contains all literature â€Å"referenced in your paper. o BIBLIOGRAPHY list – This contains all literature reviewed, but NOT referenced in your paper. o If you review literature, but don’t reference it â€Å"immediately† in your paper, place it on your BIBLIOGRAPHY. If you eventually reference in your paper, all you need to do is to cut and paste from the BIBLIOGRAPHY list, to the REFERENCE list. o Literature reviewed is placed on either the REFERENCE or the BIBLIOGRAPHY list, NOT BOTH! Organization of the Review of the Literature †¢ There are no sublevel headings given to you in the template. †¢ The concepts and themes in your literature map AND THE OUTLINE serve as the basis to organize this section. BE CONSISTENT. Insert for draft 1. o Use your literature map and evolving outline to organize these sublevel headings (subtitles) of the literature review. Remember that the concepts and themes in your literature map are theoretical in nature. Thus, in developing the Review, present the concepts and themes conceptually first followed by empirical studies that support or do not support the theoretical formulations. (see guidelines that follow for presenting theoretical and empirical literature) o Follow the organization that you described. If you alter the organization, concepts and themes in this part of the review, go back to the introduction and make the corresponding changes (in the introduction – organization, map, and outline). APA: Organize in a logical, meaningful and orderly manner. Use frequent APA level subheadings to connect main ideas and topics covered in a logical sequence (see APA publication manual for examples, pp. 111-113). The main ideas are concepts and sub-concepts in your literature map. The template for this paper uses five levels of headings (depicted on APA p. 113). The rationale for five level headings i s that you may continue with this Review as your qualifying paper and but more importantly, it may become part of the Second Chapter of a Dissertation (REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE). See p. 13 of APA First Idea, Theme, or Topic (Second Level APA heading, centered italics) First Subconcept or Theme Related to First Idea and Topic (Third Level APA, Left Italics) Related Subconcept or theme (Fourth Level APA, indent ? inch, italics, lower case, end with period). Related Subconcept or theme. Second Subconcept or Theme Related to First Idea and Topic (Third Level APA) Second Idea and Topic First Subconcept or Theme Related to Second Idea and Topic (Third Level APA) Second Subconcept or Theme Related to Second Idea and Topic (Third Level APA) An example follows (next page) Example to organize the review: for the topic the influence of organizational leadership on organizational performance (organized with appropriate APA level headings), and which follow the topical outline presented in the organization of the review (see Introduction to the Literature). Note there are 4 major themes (centered, italics) to organize this review. †¢ In the presentation of the literature review, the first two themes (Leadership and Organizational Performance) would contain â€Å"rich† theory. Who developed the theories, when? how are the concepts in the theories defined? What are the propositions in the theories (statements of relationships), and have propositions in the theories been tested in empirical studies. (See presentation of theoretical literature – and internal and external criticism) †¢ The second two themes Factors Influencing Organizational Performance and Leadership and Performance of Organizations would primarily focus on empirical studies that test the propositions in theories. (See presentation of empirical literature Leadership Classical, Progressive, Risk Leadership Theories Traits and Characteristics of Leaders Leadership, Power and Influence Gender and Equity Issues in Leadership Practice Cultural Issues and Leadership Developing Teams Leading Organizational Change Organizational Leadership Development; Strategic Leadership Leadership Measurement Organizational Performance Dimensions of Organizational Performance Organizational climate. Individual performance. Team performance. Supplier/vendor perspectives. Customer satisfaction. Financial performance. Effectiveness indicators. Performance Driven Organizations Competency modeling. Managing performance. 360 degree feedback. Collaborative change. Organizational Performance Measurement Output (activities) measures in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. Output (activities) measures in service and product organizations. Outcome (results) measures in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. Outcome (results) measures in service and product organizations. Factors Influencing Organizational Performance Leadership and Performance of Organizations Leadership Style and Team Performance Leadership Style and Organizational Outcomes Leadership Style and Vendor/Supplier and Customer Satisfaction Transformational Leadership, Organizational culture, and Organizational effectiveness IMPORTANT: Presenting theoretical literature and empirical literature following these guidelines. THIS IS AN ABSOLUTE MUST to understand and apply General Comments Literature reported in the Introduction of this critical analysis (should be very little), but ANY LITERATURE DISCUSSED IN THE INTRODUCTION must also be discussed here in the Review of the Literature – in depth, and linked with the appropriate concept (subtitle). †¢ Present clearly to let the reader know if you are presenting a theory about something (theoretical literature) or a study about something (empirical literature, empirical study, research study). When you don’t use the term â€Å"study about†, it is generally assumed that you are speaking of someone’s theory. The critical analysis review distinguishes between an author’s theorizing or suggesting (author’s interpretations) versus author’s research findings (testing theories). †¢ Always introduce the type of literature you are reporting such as: theoretical literature, empirical literature. For empiric al literature, specify the type of study. This information is usually found in the abstract of the article. For empirical literature introduce as: i. Empirical – Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed ii. Empirical – Methodological iii. Empirical – Experimental, non-experimental; case study, historical, etc. v. Empirical – Descriptive, exploratory, predictive, explanatory, Reporting Theoretical Literature (IMPORTANT) Kerlinger (1973) presented a helpful definition of a theory that has â€Å"withstood† time. A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts, definitions and propositions) that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among the variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena. Immanuel Kant provided this famous quote: â€Å"Experience without theory is blind but theory without experience is mere intellectual play† http://www. oop. uvic. ca/ArwrCoop/stuprepoverheads/1_Orientation/tsld003. h tm Criteria that can be used to evaluate theories including theoretical frameworks, conceptual models or conceptual frameworks may be organized into internal and external criticism. a. Internal Criticism (of theories) 1. Semantics (Meaning – or definition – given to the elements such as concepts, constructs, variables): Semantics evaluates Clarity, Consistency, Correspondence between theoretical and operational definitions, and intersubjectivity (which is whether similar meanings are used by other scholars). . Syntax: (Logical Structure and Relationships Between the Elements) 1. What are the types of statements (propositions)? laws, postulates, theorems, principles, hypotheses, assumptions, empirical generalizations 2. What are the types of relationships: Time ordered, probabilities, conditional, causal, or concurrent? 3. What are the signs of the relationships? : position; inverse (negative) 4. Note: It is the propositions that are tested in theories, reformulated as hypotheses. 3. Method of Theory Development (What is the method used in theory building – 1. Induction (Grounded theory, codification, definitional reduction or prepositional reduction); Deduction; Synthesis; Logical empirical approach) 2. Patterns: Is there a schematic model depicting the relationships between the concepts? If not, can you diagram the pattern of relationships between the key concepts? 3. Level of theory development: What kinds of outcomes are produced from the theory – (knowledge, principles, solutions, problems)? a. Conceptual framework (definitions only), model (shows relationships between the concepts), and/or a theory (well developed propositions, well linked together, with evidence of empirical support? ) b. Is it Descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, predictive, prescriptive b. External Criticism of a Theory 1. Social Significance: 1. Value to society; theory addresses essential issues in the discipline; 2. Lends itself to further research 3. Efficacy of the theory over another in achieving desired outcomes 2. Social Utility: 1. Pragmatic Adequacy: Is it useful? Does it contribute to understanding? Does it generate new knowledge, provide direction to in professional practice, research, education (pertinent to your topic)? 2. Scope: Is it narrow or broad? What is the degree of generality or abstractness and how does this affect is usefulness (pertinent to your topic)? 3. Complexity/Parsimony: 1. Does it explanation and interrelated many variables? 2. Could a simpler theory achieve the same purpose (parsimonious)? 4. Discrimination: 1. Can the theory be applied to more than one discipline, or is it unique to one discipline? . If it is borrowed from another discipline, are boundary lines demarcated? (example –a variety of disciplines use systems theory) 5. Empirical Validity 1. Does empirical evidence support the theory? Cite some studies. (Is there congruence between theoretical claims and empirical evidence? ) 2. Do results indicate confirmation, verification, support corroboration, or disconfirmation, failure to support the theory? 6. Social Congruence: 1. Does the theory fit with reality? 2. Is it accepted by society? a. When you are reporting theoretical literature, select criteria from the internal and external critical approaches to adequately address your description. Present theories systematically: YOU MUST DO THIS FOR ALL THEORETICAL LITERATURE. 1. First provide a good description of what the author stated about the theory, model, framework, construct or concept. –Example: 1. Introduce the title of the book(s) or theoretical article(s) in your own words which describes the theory (not studies). Next: 2. Begin with the internal critical analysis: a. Report the major concepts and constructs and how these are defined by the author (Semantics) b. Present how the author relates the concepts to one another (Syntax). These are propositions. c. Does the author explain how was the theory developed: Induction (Grounded theory, codification, definitional reduction or prepositional reduction); Deduction; Synthesis; Logical empirical approach) d. Explain how patterns of relationships between the concepts are explained: Is there a schematic/visual model depicting the relationships between the concepts? . Secondly, report what the theorist (or other authors) stated about the External critical review: Social Significance (important), Complexity/Parsimony-simple, Discrimination, Empirical Validity (important) and Social Congruence. It is extremely important that you indicate what the author said about empirical validity: Do they report empirical studies to support the theoretical explanations? When presenting classic or recent theories pertinen t to your topic, you may certainly describe the theory, but also describe the work done to test those theories. 2. Finally, you may provide your critique comments to the above – ie what needs to be strengthened in the theory? Determine if you can succinctly identify key strengths and limitations, and perhaps areas that can be improved? Can you see the linkages between the theory, practice, and research? Does this help to understand a fairly common student question: â€Å"How do we use these models and theories in practice? † Provide a balanced appraisal and sufficient detail (particularly with major theories) so that readers have enough information to draw their own conclusions. Reporting Empirical Studies (Critical! ) – Review the Instructions (you should be familiar with the information based on your critique – consult the worksheets for questions) Reporting methodological studies, you may follow the empirical approach. But focus on: the method being proposed – what method is being targeted? Is it a design? A different sampling approach? Is it a method to measure concepts? Introduce the study title (in your own words), the purpose, and present as above. Reporting Case studies may include use of prior data, or secondary analysis of data for a new study. It may also include a single subject or single organization if a case study. You may follow the above empirical approach is presenting– but be quite clear in presenting whether the authors are using someone else’s data or their own or a single subject or organizational design. Reporting Review Articles (Critical Analysis of the Literature, or Meta-analysis). First Describe what the author said: Introduce the title (in your own words). Describe the purpose of the review and its scope, including the library research plan used to obtain the literature. What sources of information were used (literature, observations)? Present the results, conclusions and future areas of inquiry needed (example: future studies) as reported by the author. Secondly, discuss your critique of the article. Note: Meta-Analyses conduct statistical analysis of other studies (analysis of analyses) General Pointers †¢ Important Note: It is so critical for you to get in the habit, very early on in this process, of presenting theoretical and empirical literature appropriately and systematically. If you do, you will find it easy to develop a nice state of the art of the literature, formulate interpretations, identify important gaps, develop conclusions, and generate recommendations for future study (which is presented in the Discussion section of this report). That is your path toward successfully completing this course, moving on toward a successful qualifying paper (whether or not you stay with the topic), and understanding the dissertation. If you don’t present the literature systematically and appropriately, the review falls apart and can’t be completed. So, plan ahead, follow directions, and you will find your path to success!! Generally, related articles and research findings should be presented together (under the appropriate sublevel heading). o Report areas of agreement and disagreement. o Only a little space should be used to report minor studies. As possible, group together minor studies that have similar results, methodologies, strengths and/or weakn esses. †¢ Major empirical studies or seminal writings (theories). It is appropriate to present major studies or seminal writings individually in more detail. †¢ As you write, you will need to integrate and synthesize the results in some logical manner. You don’t need to report everything that you read! When reading and evaluating the research studies for possible inclusion in your review, determine the relevance, worth and significance of studies to your topic. †¢ While you initially identified some topic, theme, or point that you wanted to develop, you may find that a new or different theme is evolving not initially considered. This may be a reformulation of your topic. If you have questions if this arises, contact the instructor. †¢ The review should contain fairly recent work (post 1995, and preferably 2000+). While older information can be relevant, the review should aim to provide current knowledge (a â€Å"state of the art review†). Remember y ou need to have the â€Å"most recent literature† if it is to be â€Å"state of the art†. o You will find that there are classic studies or theoretical papers repetitively cited in the literature. These are the classic (or seminal) examples of literature in the field. While you would certainly want to refer to these in your review, it would be redundant–and probably irrelevant–for you to review them. It is generally permissible to use secondary sources for some Seminal Literature. Remember that if you do not read the original (primary source) article/theory, but rather you are reporting what someone else says, it is found in a secondary source (use appropriate APA referencing format, as cited in). There should be a limited number of secondary sources in your report. †¢ As you write the Review, you will see that you are generating ideas for the Discussion section- next part – (Interpretations, Conclusions and Recommendations). You can â€Å"jump† to the Discussion as you have further understanding the literature. Do it concurrently while writing this part. You will see that you are summarizing, analyzing, critiquing and relating each literature sources logically to a concept or theme related to the area of inquiry. You are finding a meaningful way to organize the review. You are organizing, integrating and synthesizing the literature and preparing to generate your discussion of conclusions and recommendations! †¢ A good review of the lit erature is more than simply a summary of the research. It is both a critical evaluation of the existing research and a synthesis of that work. You will need to synthesize the literature in some logical manner. This is a skill that develops with practice. As you write things down, review it to see if you are integrating, evaluating, and synthesizing. Are you identifying opposing views, contradictory findings, and gaps in the literature (what questions are being suggested)? Are you bringing clarity to the issues? These will be clearly presented in the Discussion of the analysis, so lay the foundation in this part of the review. †¢ You will see that you are summarizing, but also analyzing, critiquing and relating each literature sources logically to a concept or theme related to the area of inquiry. You are finding a meaningful way to organize the review. You are organizing, integrating and synthesizing the literature! 5 â€Å"big† Instructions on Writing the Review of the Literature About†¦ 1. Organization (APA and Level Headings for the Outline) a. Add the topic to the title of this section, Review of the Literature†¦About†¦ b. Organize the Review of the Literature according to your literature map and topical outline. Use APA level headings to organize the review in a logical, meaningful and orderly manner. c. Present related theoretical literature and research findings together. d. Organizing, integrating and synthesizing the literature needs to be highly evident! . The first draft (week 3), at the minimum should contain 1a and b above, and some literature presented as possible. Draft 2 should have this part of the paper nearly complete. 1. Content and Quality of Theoretical Literature: IMPORTANT: Present the theoretical literature systematically and appropriately. Follow these steps responding to a-d a. Intro duce the name or title of the theory, model, framework, construct. Do this for each major theory, construct, or concept in your topical outline (sublevel headings). b. Internal critical analysis (what the author(s) say): 1. For each theory, name the major concepts and constructs that organize the theory, and provide the definitions by the author (Semantics) 2. Present how the author relates the concepts to one another (Syntax). These are propositions. 3. Report if the author of the theory provides a schematic/visual model depicting the relationships between the concepts. 4. Optional: How does the author explain the way the theory developed: Induction (Grounded theory, codification, definitional reduction or prepositional reduction); Deduction; Synthesis; Logical empirical approach c. External critical analysis report what the theorist (or other authors) state about theory – Review Lecture notes on these items 1. Social Significance (importance) 2. Social Utility 3. Complexity/Parsimony 4. Discrimination 5. Empirical Validity (Do the author(s) report empirical studies to support the theoretical explanations) 6. Social Congruence d. Provide Your critique comments to the above: What needs to be strengthened in the theory? Determine if you can succinctly identify key strengths and limitations, and perhaps areas that can be improved? How are linkages between the theory, practice, and research described in the literature? Does this help to understand a fairly common student question: â€Å"How do we use these models and theories in practice? † Provide a balanced appraisal and sufficient detail (particularly with major theories) so that readers have enough information to draw their own conclusions about the quality of the theory. INSTRUCTIONS ALSO CONTINUED – NEXT PAGE Example Combining 2a, b, c and d (presenting theoretical literature): In 1984, Jones introduced his seminal theory of ______________ (based on his qualitative, phenomenological studies about___ (as cited in Smith, 2004). This theory identifies 3 major constructs ____________ defined as ___. The major propositions in this theory are ________ (as cited in Smith, 2004). In the last 20 years, the theory has been revised and adapted to ___ by ____. Several empirical studies by ___, led to refinement in the theory. Brown (2000) developed a schematic model depicting these direct and indirect relationships among concepts, which continues to be examined today (Smith, 2004). This theory is socially significant addressing essential issues about ___ in the discipline of ___, and is useful in explaining, predicting, and discriminating among those with ___ and those without ___. Thus it is a well-developed guide to ___. The theory has a good balance between simplicity and complexity, contributing to its usefulness. Studies by __ verify the propositions of __. The major proposition with conflicting results in empirical studies is ___. The theory has been adapted to ___ situations and __ populations. This is the predominant theory used to examine ____ with well-developed propositions and strong empirical support. Competing theories are ___ (cite reference). You would then present these competing theories next.. 3. Content and Quality of Empirical Literature: IMPORTANT: Presents the empirical literature (including scientific investigations, case studies, methodological studies, secondary analyses, meta-analyses) systematically and appropriately, following these guidelines!! :)) a. Introduce the study title (paraphrased – in your own words –and the â€Å"general† design (in one sentence) b. Explain the purpose of the study is †¦. And link with paraphrased research questions and hypotheses (these can be abbreviated or paraphrased – not word for word – be brief) c. Discuss the quality of the literature review presented by the author and the theories and concepts (or propositions) tested (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed; and experimental, or not experimental design) d. Be explicit in reporting the specific research design for the qualitative, quantitative, or mixed study) and o Non-Experimental – descriptive, exploratory (cross-sectional, longitudinal, predictive, etc) o Type of Experimental including type of design. . Describe the sampling method (whether or not it was probability or non-probability sampling), the specific type of sampling, the sample size and characteristics of the sample. f. Present the methods of data collection (how were each of the variables are measured-instrumentation), and provide reports of reliability and validity of quantitative the tools/measures and trustwo rthiness of qualitative tools. This is very important, as you will begin to see how the concepts of interest, are measured. Be fairly explicit in describing these tools. Include the names of these data collection tools. g. Other procedures (data collection procedures and ethical considerations) h. Present the results – study findings (including hypotheses supported/not-supported), research questions answered? – Don’t restate these word for word – present in an abbreviated or paraphrased manner. i. Very important is to present the â€Å"author’s† (not your) Discussion. The discussion must include the author’s important: o Interpretations o Implications (applications for practice) o Conclusions o Limitations o Recommendations (of utmost importance, are the author’s recommendations for future areas of inquiry, example: future studies). Include this j. Discuss your critique of the article (Introduction, Literature/Theory, Methods, Results, Discussion). Select IMPORTANT POINTS. Based on your summarizing the article, you can now identify strengths and weakness, and areas needing improvement. You can do this as you describe the study or at the end of your description of the study. Provide a balanced appraisal and sufficient detail (particularly with major studies) so that readers have enough information to weigh the results and draw their own Remember that the â€Å"critical analysis of the literature† is not a mere summary (descriptive). onclusions. It is interpretative and evaluative of an area of inquiry of scholarly work. INSTRUCTIONS CONTINUED Example follows: USE YOUR CRITIQUE WORKSHEETS AS AN AID IN DEVELOPING THE PRESENTATION FOR EACH OF THE STUDIES. Example Presenting Empirical Literature – Combining 3a -j above: – Smith (2004) conducted a study about †¦.. He used a non-experimental, causal comparative, quantitative design, of __ (sample-population). Smith’s literature review was thorough, current and ___ in comparing and contrasting theories about ____. Empirical studies of ___ were examined, leading to the major gap and conflict in the literature about_________. This resulted in Smith’s study testing the proposition of †¦.. developed in 1998 by Jones (as cited in Smith, 2004). A non-prob How to cite Guidelines for Writing the Three Major Parts, Essay examples

Related literature and study about enrollment system free essay sample

India’s higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China andUnited State. The main governing body at tertiary level is the University GrantsCommission. Which enforces its standards, advises the government, and help coordinate between the centre and the state? Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission. As of 2009, India has 2 central university 215 state universities, 100 deemeduniversities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the state act, and 13institutes which are of national importance. Other institutions include 16000 colleges,including 1800 exclusive women’s colleges, functioning under these universities andinstitutions. Local Literature: A new automated enrollment system was proposed and passed by theadministration just recently. According to the chairperson of the department of information technology and systems, this enrollment system will push through on the 1 st semester of AY 2009-2010 according to source; the enrollment system will automaticallyget the student’s subject/section for hassle-free enrollment, this is for student without any pending back subject while for students with pending back subject, they still need to meettheir department chairs/coordinator first for the advising of subjects before using theenrollment system. We will write a custom essay sample on Related literature and study about enrollment system or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Governor Andres Pascual College Foreign Studies: A software development and IT service firm implemented its catalyst integratedweb platform to provide content management, transaction processing, marketing, andinteractive community function to the two rice schools. Catalyst deliver on the Jonesschool’s two primary criteria for selecting a web-based platform: simplifying contentmanagement; and enabling user response to information such as event RSVP and courseregistration. The content management tools lets the Jones school staff edit, update or addto the volume of curriculum and event information without calling for technicalassistance. They simply cut and paste document into the content management systemaudit for consistency and publish to the web. The school’s diverse audiences, whichinclude MBA’s executive Mb As, executive education participants, and alumni, nowreceives prompt notification of news and events, and can RSVP for event or register online for Executive Education courses. Local Studies: Over two decades, effective enrollment management is going to be critical to thefuture of tuition/enrollment-dependent College and universities, especially in state wherethe number of high school graduate is expected to decline by 30-40% (WICHE, 1984). This paper outline the conceptual framework, design, and implementation plan for building decision-support system for enrollment management at the college level private,comprehensive university. It begins with a brief overview of the enrollment system. As aconcept, the computer-hardware environment, and the fourth-generation software toolsused to implement the system.

Troubles With My Friend Essay Example For Students

Troubles With My Friend Essay I was walking straight to my apartment. After a long day all I was hoping to do was to have something to eat, take a long relaxing bath and have some rest. I opened my bag and I looked for my keys then I heard a tremendous sound coming inside my place. I hesitated to open the door and when I did my heart almost stopped. My best friend steph who was my roommate for about 2 years decided to have a party, but she didn’t even bother to ask me. She was totally drunk and she passed out in the middle of our living room. Everything was a complete disaster. They were about 30 or more people inside our small apartment. We will write a custom essay on Troubles With My Friend specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now I was totally mad and I wanted to scream. I woke my friend and I told her I’m so done with you†. Steph was a really good friend after all. We meet since freshman year and since then we became inseparable. When her mother died I convinced her to get an apartment just for us, since she had no family in El Paso. Everything had worked really well the first year. She was an incredible student and she even received a scholarship to play soccer at UTEP. Steph had a great job as a secretary that allowed her to pay half of the bills in order for us to have everything under control. She was a great help inside the house. Her room was always organized and she would help me with the domestic duties. In that moment I couldn’t think of anyone else that could do it better than her. She was a responsible and independent woman and I actually was really proud of her. She seemed happy full of dreams that she proposed to accomplish for herself, but everything changed after she meet Alfredo. He was the type of guy no lady wants to be around. Stephs mother took 9 months to build her heart inside her stomag and this guy found a way to destroyed it in less than weeks. She went throw a tough time and I lost her. She start it to drink every weekend, she lost her scholarship and quit her job. I tried my best to support her and I did gave her good advises but she refused to listen. I gave her time for her to recover and tried to put everything under control. I was struggling because had to pay all the bills and also I had to deal with the worst version of her. She wouldn’t help me with the domestic duties. The apartment was always nasty, she had all day for her to clean it but god knows in what things she spends her time on. Every time that I asked her if she wanted to go job hunting, she would came up with excuses. I tried to understand and let her stay since she had no one but me, but after 6 months of her being unemployed and still having a lazy attitude, random parties inside our place, and with no help paying the bills I had to find a way to have a win win situation. I just couldn’t kick my best friend out the house. If she didn’t listen to me I was going to show her. I gave her a bag that contained a DVD that I made especially for her. She was so excited and she didn’t even think twice for her to press the play button. As soon as the movie began a lot of flashback pictures of us appeared. I also added pictures of steph and her mom. Her emotions start it to appear and I could see tears running down her eyes. At the end of the movie it was a short clip of me explaining how much I loved her and how much I had struggled because of her attitude. I even added pictures of the unpaid bills, the dirtiness of our apartment, and the bags under my eyes as the effects of her random parties. As soon as the movie ended she hugged me so hard and cried. .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b , .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .postImageUrl , .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b , .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:hover , .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:visited , .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:active { border:0!important; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:active , .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u848bec1452cf4ca29f75bcf562f4265b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Pearl Harbor EssayI didn’t even know what to say, I was hoping she could understand me. She said she was sorry for her being selfish and that she knew I was going to be always by her side. The next day she went job hunting all day. Everything start it to change she quit having parties in our place and fix all the bad habits she had in the past. I felt so relieve and happy that my old friend was back. I’m glad I found a solution for the difficulties we went through these past months. I understand that our friendship is stronger that anything and I know her mom will be very proud of her just like me.

How to Stay Calm During Finals Week

How to Stay Calm During Finals Week While college stress is constant throughout the semester, college stress during finals week takes it to a whole new level. These six easy ways to rest and relax during finals week can help you make it through the madness. Remove Yourself From the  Stress Get time away/alone. Chances are, everyone you know at school is stressed during finals week, too. Take a few minutes to take a walk off-campus, treat yourself to a coffee in a place not full of stressed students, or find some other way/place that you can get yourself out of the finals-week environment, if even just for a few minutes. Unplug and Reboot Before Exams Spend 3-5 minutes not doing anything. This is often more challenging than it sounds. But take a few minutes to turn off all of your technology and sit and relax- even meditate, if you can. Those few minutes can calm your mind and your spirit while helping you  refocus and recharge. Have Some Fun Spend 15-20 minutes doing something purely for fun. The break for your brain will do wonders for its productivity later. Watch silly YouTube videos, read a trashy magazine, play a video game, or Skype with a friend far away. Hit the Gym Get some exercise in a low-stress situation. Translation: practice with your basketball team doesnt count. Go for a relaxing walk, ride your bike without knowing where youll end up, or go for a quick jog. And if its too cold outside, try something new in the gym. You might be surprised by how relaxed- and energized!- you feel afterward. Watch the Game Attend a sporting event.  If youre studying for finals at the end of the fall semester, chances are you can attend a football or basketball game during finals week. Leave your books in your room and really let yourself relax and enjoy, knowing that the time spent away will help your studying later. Get Things out of Your Brain and Onto Paper Make a list- and write down everything. For some people, making a list can really help reduce stress because it helps put things in perspective. The best way to get things organized  and to get a feeling of satisfaction is to write down every single thing you need to do- like eating breakfast/lunch/dinner, doing laundry, getting some sleep, and going to class. Getting things written down- and then crossed off- can do wonders for your sense of control and accomplishment during a very busy time.

Airline Supply Demand Curve

Airline Supply Demand Curve Airline industry provides us air transportation that improves our lives by shortening the time it takes us to reach a destination and also deliver goods. Airline industry undergoes oligopoly market, where only a few sellers that provide similar products or services but differentiated in the branding and the promotion method. Basically, there are four main categories in the airline industry, which is international, national, regional, and cargo. International flights provide services between countries; both national and regional flights are domestic flights within a country, but regional flights have shorter distance compare to national flights; cargo is mainly for the use of transport goods. In this assignment, we are going to briefly explain the determinants and the changes in market condition that affect the demand and supply of the airline industry. There are few determinants that will cause a change in the supply demand curve in the airline industry. Determinants on demand curve . The first determinant is income. When a country experiences a growth in the economy, the average income of citizens will increase. In this case, air ticket plays a role as a normal good, this is because an increase in the income will lead to an increase in the demand of air ticket purchased, one example is families might travel more often as they are in good economic condition. The second determinant is prices of related goods, where a change in price of a good might affect the demand of the other good. In the airline industry, the price of fuel has a direct influence to the demand of air ticket. When the price of fuel increases, airline industry has to increase the price of air ticket to maintain its revenue. Therefore, the fuel price and the demand of air ticket have a relationship of complements, where increase in the fuel price leads to a decrease in the demand for air ticket. However, in some special cases especially during a decline in the economy, the airline industry will not raise the price of air tickets because the customers would scare away. Therefore, the demand of air tickets is also quite dependent to the condition of economy. The third determinant is number of buyers. The more the buyers in the airline industry, the demand of air ticket will be higher. When a promotion is held by the industry airlines, there will be more buyers on the purchase of air ticket. This is because the air tickets normally sell at a lower price to attract more customers especially during a not-so-peak season. Thus, the demand or air tickets will increase and the airline industry will gain more profits even though the air tickets are selling at a lower price. The last determinant is expectation on future income and future price, which means the prediction of consumers on how much they will earn and the value of a good in the future. For example, if the economy has a positive development, where people expect a higher income in the future, they might go for a vacation a nd shift the demand curve of air ticket to the right. However, if they realize there will be an increase in price of air ticket in the future probably due to peak season, they will choose to purchase now then later and cause the demand curve to shift to the right.

Progressive Period Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Progressive Period - Research Paper Example The researcher states that during the progressive period several people stand steadily to find solutions of the problems, that were faced by America and these people were called as Progressive people. The progressive people worked to create awareness among the general public regarding different problems like alcohol abuse, child labour, food purity and government corruption etc. As a result of evolving public awareness then government had to pass several laws and acts to solve the problems of the people. The progressive movement was mainly aimed at eliminating corruption within the city government with the help of prohibition that worked for the destruction of political power of the local bosses that used to be based in saloons. The activists also worked for the promotion of women’s suffrage and eventually purer female vote was brought into the arena. During the progressive era efforts were also made to achieve high productivity and efficiency in different sectors by fostering modernization process. There were different scientific, economic, medical and engineering solutions invented during this era to support the performance of different sectors. The progressive movement was initiated at local level during the early stages, however soon it was expanded and spread to the national and state levels as well. It was also discussed how the progressive people had great support from the middle class and many lawyers, teachers; physicians became the supporters of the progressive movement. ... As a part of application of the scientific methods it was realized that the old fashioned ways of running the economics, industries and government are highly inefficient and waste the time and resources. To avoid this wastage the progressive movement worked for adaptation of different policies like banking laws that resulted in the creation of Federal Reserve System in 1914 (Leuchtenburg, p504). The progressive period activities proved them dedicatedly committed to bring reforms and changes within the country. They expect that the changes they sought could significantly improve the American society. Some of the major changes enacted during the progressive era include the income tax imposition with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators through the Seventeenth Amendment Prohibition ad the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S constitution that was meant to enact women’s suffrage. The journalist played an important role during the progressive movement as they worked to m ake people aware and informed about the corruptions being committed at the government level. These journalists were called with the names of Muckrakers who worked for exposing the waste, corruption and scandals of the authorities and government officials. They use the medium of highly influential and popular national magazines like McClure Magazine, Brand Whitlock and George Creel and published the stories and facts to uncover the wrong deeds and corruption of the government at local and state level. There were several frauds and corruption cases uncovered in these magazines. The progressive movement was also led by the motive of modernization implementation within the society. The

Question response Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Question response - Coursework Example Interference of the church leader will complicate the decision making process. The opinions of the Church leaders are not public opinion, as they are not legally elected representatives of the people. It is another issue if some political leaders solicit the opinion of the Church leaders on some important social issues like divorce, abortion, single mother parenting etc. to enable the government to address these issues from the moral angle. Moral approach to political matters appears fine in principle. But often Church leaders have conflicting views amongst themselves on moral issues. As such the government leaders would not like to take risk by patronizing any one faction of the Church. â€Å"The Family† is secretive group which articulates Christian fundamentalism. Any sect/group that relies on fundamentalism for spreading the message and for the alleged growth of the religion will end up in doom. Christian fundamentalists have cross on their necks but not Christ in their hearts. The other name for fundamentalism is envy and hatred for other religions. How that could be the trait that contributes to the welfare of humankind? As such the legislators need to be free from religious bias before making policy decisions. Legislators do not represent a particular religion. A legislator is the elected representative of a multi-cultural society as such religion is his private matter. He needs to work for the welfare of

Nicholas and Absolon Essay Example for Free

Nicholas and Absolon Essay To what extent are Nicholas and Absolon courtly lovers? Nicholas and Absolon both execute elements of the courtly love tradition, though the elements they express differ from each other and from the ideal courtly lover. Both Nicholas and Absolon attempt to use the language of the courtly lover to win Alison. When Nicholas attempts to seduce Alison into sleeping with him, he declares For deerne love of thee, lemman, I spille. At first glance this may appear to be the elevated language of courtly love, with Nicholas revealing to Alison that he loves her so much that if she were to reject him, he would die. Upon closer inspection, however, we notice that his term of affection for Alison is lemman which was often used in medieval times in a sexual context. Furthermore, the word spille can mean to die, though its cruder meaning (and the meaning more fitting with Nicholas physical treatment of Alison in this section) is to ejaculate. Here, the overall impression that Nicholas gives is that he uses the language of courtly love to cloak his dishonourable intentions. Absolon uses the language of courtly love in a different way. He utilises more romantic terms of endearment than Nicholas, such as hony-comb, faire brid and sweete cinamome and at the same time, unknowingly, uses highly unromantic imagery to describe himself. He tells Alison for youre love I swete, creating a very unappealing image of himself sweating for her love. He then proceeds to use many more unappealing images. He declares I moorne as dooth a lamb after the tete, likening himself to a helpless lamb, an emasculating concept, and that he may nat ete na moore than a maide, this time likening himself to a woman. Absolons misuse of the language of courtly love makes him all the more ridiculous, and his affected manner means that the reader has little sympathy for him. Perhaps a lot of Nicholas success in wooing Alison is that he woos secretly, as a traditional courtly lover would. Discretion is paramount, as Alison warns Nicholas that their lovemaking must be privee else if John found out he would kill her. Nicholas, in order to ensure that their lovemaking is secret, formulates an elaborate plan. This highlights his intellect and his cunning, and also reminds the reader of the description of Nicholas at the beginning of the tale, in which he is revealed to known much of deerne love and solas he is experienced in the ways of secret love. Absolon does little to secretly woo Alison. When Absolon sings and plays his guitar beneath Alisons window, he does not take care to do it at a time when John is away. Moreover, John is awoken by Absolons singing before Alison. The fact that John, a jealous husband, does not consider Absolon to be any threat to him is revealing of how others perceive Absolon. He is viewed as ineffectual and harmless. Absolon and Nicholas both use music in their wooing of Alison. Nicholas uses his sautrie to make a-nightes melodie. The next references to melody are when Alison has promised Nicholas that she will sleep with him Nicholas playethe faste, and maketh melodie and when Nicholas and Alison enjoy the revel and the melodie of their lovemaking. In this case, Nicholas music-making is symbolic of his skill and cunning as a lover. In contrast, Absolon plays music on a smal rubible and sings with a loud quinible. The fact that Absolons instrument is described as smal makes it seem unimpressive in comparison to Nicholas gay sautrie. His loud, high-pitched voice is effeminate, the ridiculousness of which is highlighted by the comic rhyme of rubible and quinible.

Solar Energy: The Ultimate Renewable Energy Resource Essays -- Argumen

The current use of fossil fuels as our main energy source has two drawbacks: their inevitable depletion and the pollution associated with combustion. These two drawbacks in addition to the growing concern of global warming has pushed for the development of more sustainable sources of energy, namely solar energy and its derivatives (i.e. wind power). Solar energy is appealing for its potential to meet all our demands, while proving to be a pollution free resource.(Bohn, 2009) Solar energy originates from the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in the sun. Leaving all the byproducts of the reactions behind in the sun, the energy that reaches the Earth is pure radiant energy. This energy represents the entire electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from x-rays to radio waves. Most of the sun’s energy, forty-three percent, is in the form of visible light, which can be harnessed for electrical production. The amount of energy hitting the Earth is incredibly large; by one calculation, a month of sunshine has the equivalent energy of all the planet’s used and unused fossil fuels.(Huang, 2007) However, the nature of solar energy has two disadvantages. The sun does not shine consistently throughout the day due to clouds and other atmospheric factors, which can be problem for constant electricity and heat production. Moreover, solar energy cannot be used for nighttime production. The other shortcoming is that the energy from the sun is a diff use source, that is, it falls over a wide area. In order to utilize this energy, it must be concentrated into a form and amount we can use, such as heat and electricity. These problems are addressed in the three steps used to harness the sun’s energy: collection, conversion, and stor... ... Need for Wind Power." International Journal of Heritage Studies 15.2/3 (2009): Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 14 Mar. 2015. 5 Huang, Y.F., et al. "Mitigating Environmental Pollution and Impacts from Fossil Fuels: The Role of Alternative Fuels." Energy Sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization & Environmental Effects 29.12 (2007): 1069-1080. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 14 Mar. 2015. 6 Kolbert, Elizabeth. â€Å"The Acid Sea.† National Geographic April. 2011: 100-121. Print. 7 Thomas, Chacko, Philip Jennings, and Dilawar Singh. "New Markets for Solar Photovoltaic Power Systems." AIP Conference Proceedings 941.1 (2007): 142-153. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 11 Apr. 2015. 8 Luckerson, Victor. "Glaciers Are Crumbling in Southern Antarctica Faster Than Previously Thought" Time.com May 22, 2015 Web. 25 Mar. 2015. http://time.com/tag/climate-change/

The Definition of White Collar Crime

In this paper the exciting criminal phenomenon known as white-collar crime will be discussed. Corporate Crime and Computer Crime will be discussed in detail. Crime preventative agencies such as the NCPC (National Crime Prevention Council) will also be researched. The late Professor Edwin Sutherland coined the term white-collar crime about 1941. Sutherland defined white-collar crime as â€Å"a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation† (Siegel 337) White-collar crime includes, by way of example, such acts as promulgating false or misleading advertising, illegal exploitation of employees, mislabeling of goods, violation of weights and measures statutes, conspiring to fix prices, evading corporate taxes, computer crimes, and so on. White-collar crime is most distinctively defined in terms of attitudes toward those who commit it. These crimes are punishable by law, however it is generally regarded by the courts and by sections of the general public as much less reprehensible than crimes usually punished by the courts. The other types of crime are blue-collar offenses, which are predominately crimes of the under-privileged. White-collar crimes are punished far less harshly than blue-collar crimes, which shows societies attitudes towards the two sections of society. White-collar crime is attractive to criminals because it brings material rewards with little or no loss of status. (Taft & England 201) For some, white-collar crime is not viewed as a â€Å"crime† at all, because of its non-violent nature. Violent crime has an immediate and observable impact on its victim which raises the ire of the public, whereas white-collar crime frequently goes undetected or is viewed as a bending of the rules. Yet white-collar crime can create the greater havoc. The victim of an assault will recover; however, the impact of a fraud can last a lifetime. This is especially true when the elderly are victimized, as they have little or no hope of re-establishing themselves in financial terms. Contrary to the popular belief, white-collar criminals are thieves and the methods used to conceal their offenses are both artful and ingenious. Concealment of the crime is always an objective of the offender, and it becomes an element of the crime itself. Because it is an artful form of deceit, which is skillfully disguised, the investigation itself is often long and laborious as far as proving criminal intent is concerned. The offence itself may be disguised in a maze of legitimate transactions, which are quite proper if viewed in isolation; however, the cumulative effect is the commission of a criminal offence. From the standpoint of the criminal, the ideal white- collar crime is one that will never be recognized or detected as a criminal act. Corporate crime is the type of crime that is engaged in by individuals and groups of individuals who become involved in criminal conspiracies designed to improve the market share or profitability of their corporations. ( Siegel 338) Corporations are legal entities, which can be and are subjected to criminal processes. There is today little restriction on the range of crimes for which corporations may be held responsible, though a corporation cannot be imprisoned. The most controversial issue in regard to the study of corporate crime revolves around the question of whether corporate crime is â€Å"really crime. † Corporate officials, politicians, and many criminologists object to the criminological study of corporate criminality on the strictest sense of the word. The conventional and strictly legal definition of crime is that it is an act, which violates the criminal law and is thereby punishable by a criminal court. From this perspective a criminal is one who has been convicted in a criminal court. Given these widely accepted notions of crime and criminals, it is argued that what is called corporate crime is not really crime and should not be considered as such by either the public or criminologists. (Hochstedler 22) It does appear that now in recent times society has had a growing concern about white-collar and corporate crime. Studies have indicated that the public now judges white-collar criminality to be more serious than it had been in the past, people now have lost confidence in the people running major companies, and most American corporate executives are believed to be dishonest. The public's concern with corporate crime has grown recently, but has been evident for several years. I will use one of the most memorable corporate crime cases in history; The Ford Pinto Case to prove my statement. (Cullen/Maakestad/Cavender 43) The product liability lawsuit and appeal titled Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Company is a case in point and ought to be read by everyone. Grimshaw is an example of the type of thing that can happen when an industry insolates itself from competition. The Pinto affair has very important lessons for us all. Its story can teach us much about the power of huge corporations and what corporations can do when they face no real competition. It carries an important lesson about how the minds of those who run the world's colossal corporations work. In November of 1971 the Grays purchased a new 1972 Pinto hatchback manufactured by Ford in October of 1971. The Grays had trouble with the car from the outset. During the first few months of ownership, they had to return the car to the dealer for repairs a number of times. Their car problems included excessive gas and oil consumption, down shifting of the automatic transmission, lack of power, and occasional stalling. It was later learned that the stalling and excessive fuel consumption were caused by a heavy carburetor float. On May 28, Mrs. Gray, accompanied by 13-year-old Richard Grimshaw, set out in the Pinto from Anaheim for Barstow to meet Mr. Gray. The Pinto was then six months old and had been driven approximately 3,000 miles. Mrs. Gray stopped in San Bernardino for gasoline, got back onto the freeway (Interstate 15) and proceeded toward her destination at 60 – 65 miles per hour. As she approached the Route 30 off-ramp where traffic was congested, she moved from the outer fast lane to the middle lane of the freeway. Shortly after this lane change, the Pinto suddenly stalled and coasted to a halt in the middle lane. It was later established that the carburetor float had become so saturated with gasoline that it suddenly sank, opening the float chamber and causing the engine to flood and stall. A car traveling immediately behind the Pinto was able to swerve and pass it but the driver of a 1962 Ford Galaxie was unable to avoid colliding with the Pinto. The Galaxie had been traveling from 50 to 55 miles per hour but before the impact had been braked to a speed of 28 to 37 miles per hour. At the moment of impact, the Pinto caught fire and its interior was engulfed in flames. According to the plaintiff's expert, the impact of the Galaxie had driven the Pinto's gas tank forward and caused it to be punctured by the flange or one of the bolts on the differential housing so that fuel sprayed from the punctured tank and entered the passenger compartment through gaps resulting from the separation of the rear wheel well sections from the floor pan. By the time the Pinto came to rest after the collision, both occupants had sustained serious burns. When they emerged from the vehicle, their clothing was almost completely burned off. Mrs. Gray died a few days later of congestive heart failure as a result of the burns. Grimshaw managed to survive but only through heroic medical measures. He has undergone numerous and extensive surgeries and skin grafts and was expected to have to undergo additional surgeries over the next 10 years. He lost portions of several fingers on his left hand and portions of his left ear, hile his face required many skin grafts from various portions of his body. This graphic account of these events is needed to grasp the full impact of this tragic situation which could have been avoided by Ford for very minimal cost. Each Pinto could have been repaired for $4-$8 a piece. Management knew of these defects but still decided to produce and release the Pinto to the public. The idea for the Pinto, as has been noted, was conceived by Mr. Iacocco [sic], the Executive Vice President of Ford. The feasibility study was conducted under the supervision of Mr. Robert Alexander, Vice President of Car Engineering. Ford's Product Planning Committee, whose members included Mr. Iacocca, Mr. Robert Alexander, and Mr. Harold MacDonald, Ford's Group Vice President of Car Engineering, approved the Pinto's concept and made the decision to go forward with the project. Harley Copp, a former Ford engineer and executive in charge of the crash testing program, testified that the highest level of Ford's management made the decision to go forward with the production of the Pinto, knowing that the gas tank was vulnerable to uncture at low rear impact speeds creating a significant risk of death or injury from fire and knowing that fixes were feasible at nominal cost. He testified that management's decision was based on the cost savings, which would inure from omitting the fixes. This was the corporation's outright trade of human life for profit. The jury in this case brought in a verdict for the plaintiffs in excess of $128 million of which $125 million were punitive damages. There is another very important point to be made by this case. Ford knew that the Pinto was going to kill or burn people because of its design, but, because of the â€Å"cost savings which would inure from omitting the fixes,† Ford decided to let it go. Consider carefully exactly what Ford Motor Company was doing here. One could argue that Ford was conducting cost-benefit analysis. To the Ford executives, the benefits were clear, calculable, and immediately available. Ford would save a few dollars on each Pinto manufactured. The costs would accrue in the future and would not be paid by Ford. Unfortunately, the costs were the lives and permanent injuries of nameless and faceless future consumers. The Pinto would appear to be a prime example of laying off costs. The suffering, the destroyed lives and families apparently were of minor consideration in the calculations when Ford performed the cost-benefit analysis. Corporate crime has also been linked to political leaders in this country. Corporate crime is a crime of power and profit for the offenders. Large and powerful corporations who have the support of prominent political leaders can be difficult to prosecute in corporate crime cases. At the Progress & Freedom Foundation conference held at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D. C. , Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich (R-Georgia) was asked why he spent so much time addressing the issue of street crime and violence, while ignoring the issue of corporate crime and violence. Gingrich answered, â€Å"If I went around the country and said, ‘Vote for us and there will be no more white-collar fraud,' the average voter will say, ‘I don't think he gets it. ‘† But corporate crime is more than just white-collar fraud. And one reason that Gingrich doesn't address the issue of corporate crime might be because one of the corporations that has brought him to power is Southwire Co. of Carrollton, Georgia. Southwire has close ties to Gingrich, it dominates the political economy of Carroll County, where Gingrich's political career was launched, and it is a corporation with a criminal record. Individuals affiliated with Southwire Co. , including its chief executive officer, Roy Richards, and its president, James Richards, have donated more than $18,000 to Gingrich's campaigns for Congress during the past ten years. According to the Los Angeles Times, James Richards has also donated 80,200 to GOPAC, the political action committee spearhearded by Gingrich. Computer technology has introduced new factors concerning the types of perpetrators, the forms of assets threatened, and embezzlement methods. ( Radzinowicz 357) Computer crimes generally fall into five categories: 1) theft of services 2) use of computer data for personal gain 3) unauthorized use of computers employed for various types of financial processing 4) property theft by computer 5) placing viruses to destroy data. The terms â€Å"computer misuse† and â€Å"computer abuse† are also used frequently, but they have significantly different implications. Criminal law recognizes the concepts of unlawful or fraudulent intent and of claim of right; thus, any criminal laws that relate to computer crime would need to distinguish between accidental misuse of a computer system, negligent misuse of a computer system and intended, unauthorized access to or misuse of a computer system, amounting to computer abuse. Annoying behavior must be distinguished from criminal behavior in law. History has shown that a broad range of persons commits computer crime: students, amateurs, terrorists and members of organized crime groups. What distinguishes them is the nature of the crime committed. The individual who accesses a computer system without further criminal intent is much different from the employee of a financial institution who skims funds from customer accounts. The typical skill level of the computer criminal is a topic of controversy. Some claim that skill level is not an indicator of a computer criminal, while others claim that potential computer criminals are bright, eager, highly motivated subjects willing to accept a technological challenge, characteristics that are also highly desirable in an employee in the data-processing field. According to a number of studies, however, employees represent the largest threat, and indeed computer crime has often been referred to as an insider crime. One study estimated that 90 per cent of economic computer crimes were committed by mployees of the victimized companies. A recent survey in North America and Europe indicated that 73 per cent of the risk to computer security was attributable to internal sources and only 23 per cent to external criminal activity. The American Bar Association conducted a survey in 1987: of 300 corporations and government agencies, 72 claimed to have been the victim of computer-related crime in the 12-month period prior to the survey, sustaining losses estimated to range from $ 145 million to $ 730 million. In 1991, a survey of security incidents involving computer-related crime was conducted at 3,000 Virtual Address Extension (VAX) sites in Canada, Europe and the United States of America. Seventy-two per cent of the respondents said that a security incident had occurred within the previous 12-month period; 43 per cent indicated that the security incident they had sustained had been a criminal offence. A further 8 per cent were uncertain whether they had sustained a security incident. Similar surveys conducted around the world report significant and widespread abuse and loss. Computer criminals have gained notoriety in the media and appear to have gained more social acceptability than traditional criminals. The suggestion that the computer criminal is a less harmful individual, however, ignores the obvious. The current threat is real. The future threat will be directly determined by the advances made in computer technology. Although it is difficult to quantify the scope of the computer crime problem, public reports have estimated that computer crime costs us between five hundred million and ten billion dollars per year. The Computer Security Institute has surveyed 428 information security specialists in Fortune 500 companies; 42% of the respondents indicated that there was an unauthorized use of their computer systems in the last year. Only a small portion of computer crimes come to the attention of the law enforcement authorities. While it is possible to give an accurate description of the various types of computer offences committed, it has proved difficult to give an accurate, reliable overview of the extent of losses and the actual number of criminal offences. At its Colloquium on Computer Crimes and Other Crimes against Information Technology, held at Wurzburg, Germany, from 5 to 8 October 1992, AIDP released a report on computer crime based on reports of its member countries that estimated that only 5 per cent of computer crime was reported to law enforcement authorities. Law enforcement officials indicate from their experience that recorded computer crime statistics do not represent the actual number of offences; the term â€Å"dark figure†, used by criminologists to refer to unreported crime, has been applied to undiscovered computer crimes. The invisibility of computer crimes is based on several factors. First, sophisticated technology, that is, the immense, compact storage capacity of the computer and the speed with which computers function, ensures that computer crime is very difficult to detect. In contrast to most traditional areas of crime, unknowing victims are often informed after the fact by law enforcement officials that they have sustained a computer crime. Secondly, investigating officials often do not have sufficient training to deal with problems in the complex environment of data processing. Thirdly, many victims do not have a contingency plan for responding to incidents of computer crime, and they may even fail to acknowledge that a security problem exists. The dynamic nature of computer technology, compounded by specific considerations and complications in applying traditional laws to this new technology, dictate that the law enforcement, legal and judicial communities must develop new skills to be able to respond adequately to the challenge presented by computer crime. The growing sophistication of telecommunications systems and the high level of expertise of many system operators complicate significantly the task of regulatory and legal intervention by law enforcement agencies. If the law enforcement community is expected to deal with the problem of computer crime, adequate training sessions must be implemented. To address computer crime, most police departments are allocating a greater proportion of resources to their economic or fraud investigation divisions, since many types of computer crime occur in the course of business transactions or affect financial assets. Accordingly, it is important for investigators to know about business transactions and about the use of computer in business. The ideal situation is to have investigators with not only solid criminal investigation backgrounds but also supplementary technical knowledge. This is similar to the traditional approach, where many police forces ensure that their fraud investigators, although not necessarily accountants, possess a thorough understanding of financial and business record keeping.